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A gallery of gravitational lenses captured by NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope showcases the diversity of this cosmic phenomenon and lays the groundwork for follow-up observations by the new Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope.

Gravitational lensing, first predicted by Albert Einstein, occurs when the gravity of a massive foreground object, such as a galaxy or cluster of galaxies, bends, warps, and magnifies the light from a more distant background object. The effect is similar to that of a giant lens in space that allows astronomers to view objects much farther away than any telescope could see on its own.

The lenses in this image formed from the precise alignment of a distant background galaxy with the mass of a foreground galaxy, creating distorted and magnified images of the background galaxy that appear as arcs around the foreground galaxy.

Astronomers will use these observations of a large and varied population of gravitational lenses to construct lens models that will help determine how much mass is in the lensing system’s foreground galaxy – and potentially prove or dispel a theory about dark matter. Astronomers study the amount of distortion of the lensed background galaxies to determine the quantity and distribution of mass in the foreground galaxy, including its invisible dark matter.

Hubble views the cosmos primarily in visible and ultraviolet light with some infrared coverage, providing a comprehensive, high-resolution view of individual objects. Roman sees primarily infrared light and some visible, over a much larger field of view to create panoramas of the universe. While Hubble gets a better view of individual lenses, Roman will be able to capture more lenses with its wider field-of-view. If Roman finds a particularly interesting lens, researchers may use Hubble to take follow-up observations using its visible and UV prowess for individual objects.

With Hubble’s high-resolution imaging and precise models, researchers should also be able to detect small imperfections in these gravitationally lensed galaxy arcs that would indicate the presence of small clumps of dark matter. Researchers could use these previously undetected clumps to confirm the cold dark matter theory, which predicts the existence of many small dark matter clumps of between a million to a billion solar masses. In contrast, the dark matter halo of our Milky Way galaxy is around 1.3 trillion solar masses.

By studying Hubble lens images in detail, researchers intend to build a super-intelligence tool to efficiently search similar arcs in the upcoming Roman images. The Hubble images are expected to both yield their own results on dark matter and pave the way for analysis of Roman’s larger sample of lenses.

The unique lenses in this image display some of the different characteristics researchers will see as they collect a diverse and numerous assortment of lenses to test in their models. Panel A is an example of an arc-counterarc configuration, in which the lensed background galaxy appears as a duplicated pair of arcs. The lensed galaxy is being magnified by a pair of foreground galaxies whose combined mass bends the light of the background galaxy around them.

Panel F is an Einstein Ring, in which the alignment of the background galaxy and approximately spherical mass of the foreground lens are so perfectly situated that the lensed galaxy almost fully encircles the foreground galaxy. Panel I shows a quadruply lensed galaxy, in which the background galaxy is replicated four times, appearing as smeared dots around the foreground galaxy. Panel C also shows a quadruply lensed galaxy, with double knots that are most likely strong star-forming regions in the background galaxy.

Some of the magnified and warped background galaxies appear blue and some appear red. These bluish arcs indicate young stars, while reddish arcs indicate older stars. Roman and Hubble will explore these differences to better understand how galaxies evolved earlier in the universe.

Most of the foreground lensing galaxies are elliptical galaxies, which are older, denser, and more compact. Lensed images of background galaxies only occur when the mass density of the foreground galaxy reaches a critical point.

But not all of these foreground galaxies are ellipticals, and researchers can use these differences to explore the evolutionary paths taken by these galaxies. In panel G, the foreground galaxy appears elongated, which may be true or a trick of perspective, and in panels B and F, the foreground galaxies appear to have spiral arms.

Panel D’s foreground galaxy has a visible dust lane, which is rare in a lensing galaxy and the kind of detail that Hubble’s sharp, visible-light vision excels at revealing. The lensed background galaxy could be an Einstein Ring, with the dust lane “breaking” our view of the ring. Because infrared light is less obscured by dust, future Roman infrared observations could help determine whether the arcs form a more complete Einstein ring.

These strong lenses were first detected with The Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument at Kitt Peak. Hubble subsequently observed them, and Roman will take further observations. Images like these are an example of the kinds of collaborative efforts that routinely take place between NASA’s Great Observatories to build a comprehensive picture of the cosmos. As Roman joins the family of large space observatories that includes Hubble, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the James Webb Space Telescope, a new window opens onto the universe, revealing sights previously hidden while expanding our cosmic knowledge for all of humanity.

Explore More

Media Contact:

Claire Andreoli
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD
claire.andreoli@nasa.gov

As a new exhibit opens showcasing NASA’s space shuttle Endeavour, NASA photographers look back at the final mission. These photographers documented the iconic images shared around the world on Sept. 21, 2012, while millions watched space shuttle Endeavour fly on top of the agency’s 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft for the last time.

Endeavour’s new home at the California Science Center in Los Angeles will reopen the weekend of Nov. 13, displayed upright in launch position, ready to inspire the next generation of space explorers.

NASA/Lori Losey

“Chasing Endeavour’s final ferry flight over Southern California was, without a doubt, a leading highlight of my 37-year career at NASA,” said Lori Losey, lead videographer at NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center in Edwards, California. “I advocated for two chase aircraft to be used in the LA area so we could dedicate one aircraft to photo and one to video. It was this beautiful dance of alternating altitudes and swapping positions between landmarks to maximize both of us capturing the legendary imagery.”

Two photographers and one videographer, all based at NASA Armstrong, had a leading hand in preparing the Endeavour’s flight to Los Angeles, and in deciding where else the aircraft would fly around California on its final journey. Agency pilots planned the route to fly across some of California’s most iconic landmarks and the imagery team strategized about how to best capture the images.  

“The most fun thing about this project was seeing the excitement of the people on the ground as we flew over the different landmarks,” said Jim Ross, NASA Armstrong’s lead photographer. “People in the Los Angeles area really came out and supported the Endeavour flyover. We saw so many supporters at Griffith Park and Disneyland.”

Photographer Carla Thomas said seeing the standing-room-only crowd below the California State Capitol in Sacramento filled her with pride. After joining the agency in the wake of the Challenger tragedy, she reflected on the opportunity to document NASA’s return to flight.

Endeavour was escorted by NASA Armstrong’s F/A-18s and an F-15, which carried the photo and video teams in the back seats. Like many flight efforts, this journey took a significant amount of preplanning with the California Science Center, as well as groups like the Federal Aviation Administration, the Los Angeles International Airport, and NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston.

“The planning was my favorite part of this effort — it was fun and exciting to plan the shots,” Thomas said. “I flew the entire route with the LAPD (Los Angeles Police Department) in one of their helicopters. We had to make sure this was going to work and find any obstacles. Planning for the Hollywood sign was challenging, because it’s on the side of a hill with power lines and radio antennas, but we worked through these issues in the planning process.”

The space shuttle’s flight path included other California landmarks: Dodger Stadium, the Getty Center, the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, NASA’s Ames Research Center in Silicon Valley, the Golden Gate Bridge, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, and the Santa Monica Pier.

Endeavour helped begin assembly of the International Space Station by delivering its first components to orbit and went on to complete 25 missions. The space shuttle will soon be seen, along with some of the images from the final flight, in its permanent home inside the new Samuel Oschin Air and Space Center at the California Science Center in Downtown Los Angeles.

Compared to ecosystems in many other parts of the world, the blanket bogs of the Flow Country in northern Scotland are unassuming—soggy, treeless landscapes dominated by hummocky mosses, grasses, and heathers. Yet, to ecologists, the seemingly desolate areas are nothing short of extraordinary.

The bogs store tremendous quantities of carbon. That’s because their soils are so waterlogged that microbes cannot fully break down dead plant material, a process that would otherwise release carbon dioxide. Instead, partially decayed plant matter accumulates into thick layers of spongy, crumbly, carbon-rich material called peat.

The unusual ecosystems, also called blanket mires and featherbed bogs, only occur in places with abundant rainfall, poor drainage, and low levels of evapotranspiration. These types of bogs cover just 120,000 square kilometers (46,000 square miles) globally, less than one-tenth of one percent of Earth’s land surface. The image above, captured by the OLI (Operational Land Imager) on Landsat 8, is centered on blanket bogs in the Scottish Highlands, home to the largest such ecosystem in Europe. This peatland is also the first of its type to be inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The peat bogs of northern Scotland, home to more than 30 species of sphagnum moss, are spread across some 1,900 square kilometers (730 square miles) of the country’s Highlands region. In this image, boggy areas appear dark brown and are sprinkled with lakes. The light green area on the right side around Thurso is farmland. The darker green geometric patterns in the center are conifer plantations. The image was captured in the spring, the part of the year when the land surface is most waterlogged and peat bogs begin to accumulate large amounts of new biomass.

While forests store most of their carbon in living trees—which eventually release it back into the atmosphere when they burn or die—peat bogs often store carbon for many thousands of years. Some parts of the Flow Country have been accumulating peat for more than 9,000 years, building deposits exceeding eight meters thick, according to UNESCO. Overall, scientists estimate that all of the world’s peatlands cover just 3 percent of Earth’s land surface but store more than 600 gigatons of carbon—about twice as much as all the world’s forests combined.

NASA Earth Observatory images by Michala Garrison, using Landsat data from the U.S. Geological Survey. Story by Adam Voiland.

References & Resources

• Aitkenhead, M.J. (2016) Mapping peat in Scotland with remote sensing and site characteristics. European Journal of Soil Science, 68(1), 28-38.
• BBC (2020, August 3) Scotland’s 10,000-year-old wild heartland. Accessed November 10, 2026.
• The Flow Country Partnership, The Flow Country. Accessed November 10, 2026.
• Lindsay, R. & Anderson, R. (2016) Blanket Mires of Caithness and Sutherland, Scotland’s Great Flow Country (UK). The Wetland Book. (Springer: Dordrecht).
• Michigan Tech (2019) Peatlands cover 3 percent of land and store 30 percent of soil carbon. Accessed November 10, 2026.
• NatureScot (2024, July 26) Scotland’s The Flow Country secures World Heritage Site status. Accessed November 10, 2026.
• NatureScot (2026, August 27) Blanket bog. Accessed November 10, 2026.
• Warren, C. (2008) Birds, bogs and forestry’ revisited: The significance of the flow country controversy. Scottish Geographical Journal, 116(4), 315-337.

Written by William Farrand, Senior Research Scientist, Space Science Institute

Earth planning date: Friday, Nov. 6, 2026

This week Curiosity has been completing its drill campaign at the “Nazca” drill hole. This is an area characterized by bedrock containing disk-shaped (or in a liberal interpretation, potato chip shaped … see linked image) crystal forms. A key objective has been to better characterize these chip-shaped features. Drill samples were delivered to the Sample Analysis for Mars (SAM) instrument. While the SAM analysis was on-going, Monday’s plan included a ChemCam LIBS observation of another crystal-form, “Ahi Veremos,” more Mastcam frames to fill out a mosaic of the Nazca near to mid-field, and environmental observations including a large dust devil survey, and horizon and atmospheric zenith movies.

Wednesday’s plan included two targeted science blocks with a LIBS depth profile of the “Colca” crystal-form and LIBS of the “Bermejo” target. A long distance Remote Micro-Imager (RMI) mosaic of rock clusters below the “Cordillera” ridge was also collected. Mastcam collected more frames of its Nazca mosaic, and more environmental observations were made.

Friday’s planning was for three sols with three targeted science blocks and a drive away from the Nazca drill site. A MAHLI mosaic of the side of the block that hosts the Nazca drill hole was planned. It was also planned to use MAHLI’s nighttime white-light and ultraviolet LED lamps for nighttime imaging of the crystal-forms. Mars’ moon, Phobos, was eclipsing the Sun and imaging of that event was prioritized. ChemCam LIBS observations were planned for each sol including a cluster of crystal forms, a resistant layer in the side of the Nazca block and a dark float rock. A long distance RMI mosaic of dark lenses beneath a planar surface on the “Mishe Mokwa” ridge was to be made. Another round of environmental observation was also planned. Finally, Friday’s drive was to take the rover back towards its southerly trending route where Curiosity would continue its trek of exploration and discovery.

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