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Description

This graphic illustrates the areas of Jupiter’s moon Io sampled by the Microwave Radiometer (MWR) instrument aboard NASA’s Juno spacecraft during two close flybys. The black overlapping lines show the instrument’s footprints during Perijove 57 on Dec. 30, 2023, when the spacecraft primarily mapped the northern hemisphere. The blue lines represent Perijove 58 on Feb. 3, 2024, which focused heavily on the moon’s mid-latitudes and equatorial regions. 

Both passes mapped the side of Io that constantly faces Jupiter. The sweeping, overlapping patterns are a result of the spacecraft spinning at two revolutions per minute as it flew past the moon at a distance of roughly 930 miles (1,500 kilometers). 

NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of Caltech in Pasadena, California, manages the Juno mission for the principal investigator, Scott Bolton, of the Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio. Juno is part of NASA’s New Frontiers Program, which is managed at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, for the agency’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington. The MWR was built by JPL. Lockheed Martin Space in Denver built and operates the spacecraft.

More information about Juno is at: http://www.nasa.gov/juno and http://missionjuno.swri.edu

Description

This map represents data captured by the Microwave Radiometer (MWR) aboard NASA’s Juno spacecraft, indicating heat rising from just beneath the surface of Jupiter’s moon Io. While infrared instruments measure the temperature of the moon’s surface, the lowest frequency microwave channels (0.6 and 1.25 gigahertz) on the MWR can penetrate between about 6 and 20 feet (2 and 6 meters) into the crust. The colors on this map illustrate a distinct temperature gradient across the moon, with the most extreme, localized heat output in red. 

The most prominent red anomaly in the upper left (between 60 and 120 degrees west longitude) reveals subsurface temperatures 18 to 36 degrees Fahrenheit (10 to 20 degrees Celsius, or 10 to 20 Kelvin)  warmer than the surrounding area. This massive regional heat source coincides with the Zal Montes Patera complex, an area where Juno’s Stellar Reference Unit observed an active lava flow. A second major subsurface heat source is also visible near the equator, stretching from 0 to 50 degrees west longitude. Together, these distinct microwave anomalies indicate significant internal heating occurring within the upper tens of meters of Io’s crust. 

Contrasting with these intense hot spots are the yellow and green regions, which reflect temperatures more common across the moon. The yellow areas represent intermediate temperatures that naturally warm up to near -190°F (-123°C, or 150 Kelvin) as they approach the equator. Meanwhile, the green areas, primarily visible toward the higher northern latitudes, indicate the coolest subsurface temperatures, dropping to around -298°F (-183°C, or 90 Kelvin) near the pole.

NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of Caltech in Pasadena, California, manages the Juno mission for the principal investigator, Scott Bolton, of the Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio. Juno is part of NASA’s New Frontiers Program, which is managed at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, for the agency’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington. The MWR was built by JPL. Lockheed Martin Space in Denver built and operates the spacecraft.

More information about Juno is at: http://www.nasa.gov/juno

 NASA’s Juno mission has provided the first measurements of the temperature below the surface of Jupiter’s moon Io, revealing significant heating within the shallow subsurface of the most volcanically active world in the solar system. Collected during two close flybys, the data also shows that most of Io’s surface is remarkably smooth and composed of material of very low density.

Published Wednesday in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, these findings break new observational ground for both fiery and icy worlds beyond our planet.

Io’s extreme volcanism is powered by tidal heating. The moon is constantly stretched and squeezed by Jupiter’s immense gravity as it travels its slightly elliptical orbit, generating internal heat output many times greater than Earth’s. Until now, virtually everything known about that heat came from infrared observations, which sense only the temperature of the top surface. The latest findings are derived from data collected by the spacecraft’s Microwave Radiometer (MWR) instrument.

“The Juno Microwave Radiometer directly observed Io’s heat output by looking below the surface,” said Scott Bolton, study coauthor and Juno’s principal investigator at Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio. “The surprising discovery that we could see below a rocky moon’s surface has important implications for studying Earth’s volcanoes. Juno has taught us that if we look with an MWR-type instrument near a volcano on Earth, we might see a similar signature in the subsurface temperature gradient, providing new information on how terrestrial volcanoes work.”

Fire, ice

Juno’s Microwave Radiometer was designed by Bolton to peer beneath Jupiter’s cloud tops to investigate the dynamics and composition of the gas giant’s deep atmosphere. The MWR’s six microwave antennas serve as a single instrument, simultaneously detecting microwaves at a wide range of wavelengths, from about half an inch to 20 inches (1.3 to 51 centimeters). During the mission’s extended phase, the MWR instrument has provided the opportunity to observe three of the planet’s Galilean moons: Ganymede, Europa, and Io.

“The technique is novel in that each wavelength explores different depths, providing a new way to characterize the deep atmosphere of giant planets and the subsurface crusts of icy and rocky moons,” said Bolton. “At Ganymede and Europa, we explored tens of miles below the surface, assuming their ice shells were mostly pure water, but the ability to probe into the volcanic rock at Io was an unexpected discovery.”

During flybys on Dec. 30, 2023, and Feb. 3, 2024, the solar-powered Juno spacecraft came within about 930 miles (1,500 kilometers) of the moon’s surface.

“The instrument measured Io’s thermal emission at depths ranging from a few inches down to tens of feet. Everywhere we looked, we found the temperature rising by more than 40 degrees Fahrenheit just several feet into the surface — a gradient far steeper than solar heating alone can explain,” said Shannon Brown, the paper’s lead author at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California.

The data suggests two possible explanations. First, heat could be rising steadily through a conductive crust. While this background heat flow — measured at 1 to 3 watts per square meter — is relatively gentle on a local scale (roughly equivalent to a small nightlight glowing under every square yard), across the entire moon it represents a release of energy up to 30 times Earth’s average. Alternatively, the signal could be coming from cooling lava flows, capped by roughly 30 to 35 feet (9 to 11 meters) of solidified crust, that cover about 10% of the moon’s surface at any given time.

“Io provides a unique window into learning how tidal heating works throughout the cosmos, a fundamental process that provides energy and heat to worlds that are far from their parent star,” said Bolton. “This process can not only create the most volcanic body in the solar system, in the case of Io, but also fuels the subsurface oceans on the moons of giant planets, such as Europa and Ganymede. Up until this point we could only observe the heat escaping at the surface or through eruptions. Now we can characterize how the heat is moving from the interior toward the surface.”

Great plains of Io

Another big insight gained from the two flybys is just how smooth Io is. Prior to the recent findings, the moon was known for its tall mountains, but the MWR indicates that apart from this visible topography, the surface features expansive smooth patches that stretch for 60 miles (100 kilometers) or more. Because Juno flew by overlapping regions of Io at different angles, the team was able to map how the surface reflects microwaves, much like an airline passenger might see the ocean flash with sunlight only at specific angles.

“Away from its mountains, the surface is more like the Great Plains of North America, and even though Io is a rocky body, the surface material has a very low density — more like pumice or a fluffy volcanic ash than solid rock,” said Brown.

More about Juno

A division of Caltech in Pasadena, California, JPL manages the Juno mission for the principal investigator, Scott Bolton, of the Southwest Research Institute. Juno is part of NASA’s New Frontiers Program, which is managed at the agency’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, for the NASA’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington. Lockheed Martin Space in Denver built and operates the spacecraft. More information about Juno is at:

https://science.nasa.gov/mission/juno

News Media Contacts

DC Agle
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
818-393-9011
agle@jpl.nasa.gov

Karen Fox / Molly Wasser
NASA Headquarters, Washington
202-358-1600
karen.c.fox@nasa.gov / molly.l.wasser@nasa.gov

Deb Schmid 
Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio 
210-522-2254 
dschmid@swri.org 

2026-050

NASA is supporting the Genesis Mission, a national effort to drive the use of artificial intelligence in tackling complex scientific and engineering challenges to advance a new era of discovery.

President Donald J. Trump issued the Executive Order “Launching the Genesis Mission” on Nov. 24, 2025, creating a national mission to leverage artificial intelligence to accelerate scientific discovery. The mission is led by the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy and has now expanded to more than 15 federal agencies in a whole-of-government initiative. NASA is exploring how its missions, data, and expertise can support National Science and Technology challenges and help develop the powerful AI tools envisioned under the Genesis Mission, opening the door to faster breakthroughs, new knowledge, and discoveries that benefit the American people and help unlock some of the world’s greatest mysteries.

“America has invested for generations in the data, missions, and technical expertise that make NASA one of the world’s greatest engines of discovery,” said NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman. “The Genesis Mission is an opportunity to turn that foundation into faster science, stronger engineering, and better mission outcomes. Leveraging our relationships with interagency counterparts, NASA can advance AI tools that accelerate exploration, strengthen American leadership in space, and open new paths to understanding our planet and the universe. Likewise, NASA is committed to applying our research and development to other initiatives within government for the benefit of American taxpayers.”

NASA introduced new Genesis Mission National Science and Technology Challenges that center on two major priorities: strengthening America’s superiority in space and igniting a new era of innovation driven by more than 70 years of science and engineering by the agency.

To operate safely in a space environment that is growing more crowded and dynamic each year, and to maintain America’s leadership in space, NASA must develop advanced systems faster than traditional engineering methods allow. These systems must work together reliably across spacecraft, communications, logistics, surface operations, and other mission capabilities. By combining NASA’s mission expertise with the Department of Energy’s computing and AI capabilities, the Genesis Mission can shorten the path from concept to operational readiness and strengthen America’s ability to operate and lead in space.

NASA also will explore how AI can unlock new discoveries from more than 150 petabytes of data collected across decades of missions and research. NASA’s telescopes, satellites, orbiters, landers, and aeronautics programs have produced an extraordinary record of Earth, the solar system, and the universe, but the scale and complexity of these archives make it difficult to examine every observation using traditional methods. Advanced AI tools could help scientists connect data from different missions, instruments, simulations, and fields of study, identify patterns that might otherwise remain hidden, improve predictions, and reveal new discoveries in data that may have already been studied. By turning NASA’s mission archives into engines of discovery, the Genesis Mission can expand the return on generations of American investment in space and strengthen research across a wide range of scientific fields.

As the Genesis Mission advances, NASA remains dedicated to harnessing its decades of scientific and mission data and engineering capabilities to accelerate new innovations and discovery.

For more information about NASA’s missions, visit:

http://www.nasa.gov

-end-

George Alderman / Elizabeth Shaw
Headquarters, Washington
202-358-1600
george.a.alderman@nasa.gov / elizabeth.a.shaw@nasa.gov

Wildland fire activity in Canada ramped up in July 2026, a time of year when lightning ignitions typically increase, according to a seasonal outlook published by several North American fire agencies. The blazes sent smoke plumes pouring across the U.S. and Canada, affecting air quality in both countries.  

This animation tracks brown carbon, the organic aerosols emitted by fires that give smoke plumes their characteristic yellow, orange, and brown tint. Brown carbon is a major component of a fire’s PM_2.5 emissions, a type of air pollution that can aggravate cardiovascular and respiratory conditions. Here, the plume drifts across North American skies from July 14 through July 20, 2026.

Data for the animation come from a version of the GEOS (Goddard Earth Observing System) model, which assimilates data from satellites, aircraft, and ground-based observing systems. In addition to satellite observations of aerosols and fires, the model also incorporates meteorological data such as air temperature, moisture, and winds to project the plume’s behavior.

On July 14, at the start of the animation, numerous fires had already cropped up, including more than 180 in Ontario and several in northern Minnesota. Winds carried the smoke southeast, and by July 15, skies turned hazy and air quality declined from southern Ontario in Canada to the Upper Midwest and Northeast in the U.S. July 16 and 17 saw air quality in many areas continue to plummet, including in Detroit, where it stayed in the hazardous range for several consecutive days. Toronto, Chicago, New York City, and Washington, D.C., saw air quality ranging from unhealthy to hazardous.

On July 19 and 20, smoke continued to affect air quality downwind, including in the Great Lakes region, according to the National Weather Service. Storms began clearing it away in parts of the East, where air quality improved to good or moderate. Meanwhile, fires in the Pacific Northwest began degrading air quality there. 

The brown carbon shown in this animation represents organic carbon that comes specifically from wildfire smoke. Wildfires also emit black carbon, or soot, which contributes to their PM_2.5 output. Black carbon has long served as a tracer for smoke plumes, but human sources—such as vehicle exhaust and industrial combustion—produce it too, blending in with the black carbon from fires. The GEOS model has been able to make that distinction for brown carbon since February 2026, when an update enabled it to split organic carbon into its anthropogenic and biomass-burning components.

NASA Earth Observatory animation by Lauren Dauphin, using GEOS-FP data from the Global Modeling and Assimilation Office at NASA GSFC. Story by Kathryn Hansen.

References & Resources

• The Conversation (2026, July 16) Yes, breathing wildfire smoke can harm your health – here’s what you can do to protect yourself. Accessed July 21, 2026.
• NASA’s Global Modeling and Assimilation Office (2026, February 19) Splitting Anthropogenic and Biomass Burning Sources of Organic Carbon in GOCART-2G. Accessed July 21, 2026.
• NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio (2026, July 20) Long-range Transport of 2026 Canadian Wildfire Smoke into the United States (July 14-20, 2026). Accessed July 21, 2026.
• National Interagency Fire Center, Natural Resources Canada, and Servicio Meteorológico Nacional (2026, July 14) North American Seasonal Fire Assessment and Outlook. Accessed July 21, 2026.
• The New York Times (2026, July 19) When Will the Wildfire Smoke Clear? Accessed July 21, 2026.
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2026, July 14-20) AirNow: Interactive Map of Air Quality. Accessed July 21, 2026.

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