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Today’s story is the answer to the March 2026 puzzler.

Though Ireland is known for the many shades of green that grace its grassy pastoral landscapes, there’s one corner of the Emerald Isle where gray reigns supreme. In the Burren region, on the island’s west coast, what geologists describe as limestone pavement covers much of the rocky, treeless landscape.

The OLI (Operational Land Imager) on Landsat 8 captured this view of the Burren on May 16, 2025. The fossil-rich limestone that makes up the gray outcrops was deposited about 325 million years ago during the Carboniferous Period, when what is now Ireland lay near the equator beneath warm, shallow seas. Although the limestone was initially deposited in flat, horizontal layers on the seafloor, it later buckled into gentle arch- and trough-shaped folds as tectonic plates collided during a mountain-building episode known as the Variscan Orogeny.

These folds in the tilted rock layers and differences in their rate of erosion produced the terraced appearance that defines the Burren’s hills, with more erosion-resistant layers of rock persisting as ledges. Glacial activity also played a role in sculpting the landscape, scraping away soil and sediment to expose the limestone pavement and smoothing the region’s hills.

Limestone is prone to chemical weathering that produces an irregular terrain known as karst, pockmarked with sinkholes, caves, and fissures called grikes. Many grikes in the Burren collect soil and have become footholds where vegetation grows in the otherwise rocky landscape.

Individual grikes are too small to see in Landsat imagery, but networks of them have aligned along the rock layers, contributing to the concentric vegetation patterns visible in the image. Among the plants that you might find growing in them is the shamrock, the three-leaved clover that has become a symbol of Ireland.

With some luck, Trifolium dubium or Trifolium repens may even be found amidst the shamrock-shaped contours of Moneen Mountain, a 262-meter (860-foot) limestone hill visible in the image above. While there’s hardly consensus about what species is the true inspiration for shamrocks, these two clover species were among the favorites when Irish botanists were surveyed about the topic in the 1880s, according to the Carnegie Museum of Natural History.

NASA Earth Observatory images by Lauren Dauphin, using Landsat data from the U.S. Geological Survey. Story by Adam Voiland.

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References & Resources

• Burren and Cliffs of Moher Geopark The Story of the Burren. Accessed March 16, 2026.
• Burren National Park Nature & Conservation. Accessed March 16, 2026.
• Carnegie Museum of Natural History What is a Shamrock? Accessed March 16, 2026.
• Earth (2018, June 7) Travels in Geology: The Burren: Ireland’s “Great Rock” Region. Accessed March 16, 2026.
• The Geological Society The Burren. Accessed March 16, 2026.
• International Commission on Geoheritage (2026) Carboniferous evolution of the Burren and Cliffs of Moher. Accessed March 16, 2026.
• National Geographic (2024, October 10) Come to this Irish region for otherworldly rock formations. Accessed March 16, 2026.
• Smithsonian (2016, March 16) No One Really Knows What a Shamrock Is. Accessed March 16, 2026.

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NASA will hold a media teleconference at 5:30 p.m. EDT on Thursday, March 19 to highlight plans for its X-59 quiet supersonic aircraft’s upcoming flight tests. The teleconference is set to take place after the X-59 is scheduled to complete its second flight, in California.

For the media call, NASA leadership will join representatives from the Quesst mission and contractor Lockheed Martin Skunk Works. The X-59’s test pilots will be available to answer questions about what it’s like to fly the aircraft and how they prepare for flights.

The news conference will stream on NASA’s YouTube channel. An instant replay will be available online. Learn how to watch NASA content on a variety of platforms, including social media.

Participants include:

• Amit Kshatriya, NASA associate administrator
• Cathy Bahm, project manager, Low Boom Flight Demonstrator, NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center, Edwards, California
• Peter Coen, Quesst mission integration manager, NASA’s Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia
• Jim “Clue” Less, X-59 test pilot, NASA Armstrong
• Nils Larson, X-59 test pilot, NASA Armstrong
• Pat LeBeau, Lockheed Martin X-59 project manager

To participate in the virtual call, members of the media must RSVP no later than two hours before the start of the event to: kristen.m.hatfield@nasa.gov. NASA’s media accreditation policy is available online.

For second flight, the X-59 will taxi from its hangar at NASA Armstrong, then take off and land at nearby Edwards Air Force Base. The aircraft will fly for roughly an hour, reaching a cruising speed of 230 mph at 12,000 feet before accelerating to 260 mph at 20,000 feet.

This flight will kick off a series of flights known as envelope expansion, during which NASA will gradually take the X-59 faster and higher to ensure the aircraft’s safety and assess its performance. This phase will be followed by flights assessing the X-59’s unique acoustic profile. The X-59 is the centerpiece of NASA’s Quesst mission and was developed to fly supersonic, or faster than the speed of sound, without generating loud sonic booms.

Through Quesst, NASA is working to make commercial supersonic flight over land possible, dramatically reducing travel time in the United States or anywhere in the world.

To learn more about X-59 visit:

https://www.nasa.gov/quesst-media-resources

-end-

Rob Margetta
Headquarters, Washington
202-358-0918
robert.j.margetta@nasa.gov 

Kristen Hatfield
NASA Langley, Virginia
757-817-5522
kristen.m.hatfield@nasa.gov

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SPARCS CubeSat ‘First Light’ Images

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This pair of images shows stars observed by the SPARCS (Star-Planet Activity Research CubeSat) space telescope simultaneously in the near-ultraviolet, left, and far-ultraviolet, right. These observations were recorded on Feb. 6, 2026, three weeks after the cube satellite, or CubeSat, launched aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 on Jan. 11. The fact that one star is seen in the far-UV while multiple are seen in near-UV offers insights into the temperatures of these stars, with the one visible in both colors being the hottest.

Roughly the size of a large cereal box, SPARCS will monitor flares and sunspot activity on low-mass stars — objects only 30% to 50% the mass of the Sun. These stars are among the most common in the Milky Way and host the majority of the galaxy’s roughly 50 billion habitable-zone terrestrial planets, which are rocky worlds close enough to their stars for temperatures that could allow liquid water and potentially support life.

The SPARCS spacecraft is the first dedicated to continuously and simultaneously monitoring the far-ultraviolet and near-ultraviolet radiation from low-mass stars. Over its one-year mission, SPARCS will target approximately 20 low-mass stars and observe them over durations of five to 45 days. 

Filters for the spacecraft’s camera, SPARCam, were made using a technique that improves sensitivity and performance by enabling them to be directly deposited onto the specially developed UV-sensitive “delta-doped” detectors. The approach of detector-integrated filters eliminated the need for a separate filter element, resulting in a system that is among the most sensitive of its kind ever flown in space.

The filters, detectors, and associated electronics were designed, fabricated, and tested at the Microdevices Laboratory (MDL) at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California. Inventors at MDL harness physics, chemistry, and material science, including quantum, to deliver first-of-their-kind devices and capabilities for our nation.

Funded by NASA and led by Arizona State University in Tempe, SPARCS is managed under the agency’s Astrophysics Research and Analysis program. The agency’s CubeSat Launch Initiative (CSLI) selected SPARCS in 2022 for a ride to orbit. The initiative is a low-cost pathway for conducting scientific investigations and technology demonstrations in space, enabling students, teachers, and faculty to gain hands-on experience with flight hardware design, development, and building.

Blue Canyon Technologies fabricated the spacecraft bus.

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As four astronauts travel around the Moon on NASA’s Artemis II mission, they will venture beyond Earth’s protective magnetic field. The crew’s spacecraft, Orion, will carry and protect them as they journey into deep space and serves as the main protection against the Sun’s intense power.  During their 10-day flight, NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) will monitor the Sun around the clock and translate space weather conditions into real-time decisions to protect the astronauts. 

Space weather refers to the changing conditions driven by solar wind and eruptions from the Sun. Solar flares are the most powerful eruptions in the solar system, the strongest unleashing more energy than a billion hydrogen bombs. Coronal mass ejections are giant clouds of solar particles hundreds of times the size of Earth that burst from the Sun.  

While both flares and coronal mass ejections can affect technology, the primary concern for astronauts is the solar particle events they can trigger, accelerating some particles to near light speed. If a significant solar particle event occurs near the Artemis II crew, it could raise radiation levels inside the spacecraft. Too high a total lifetime exposure can contribute to increased risks of developing cancer or health disorders that could impair cognition and performance. During the Artemis II mission, NASA will minimize that risk.

Tracking solar eruptions 

“Our focus will be real-time space weather analysis, prioritizing solar energetic particles and events that could produce them,” said Mary Aronne, operations lead for the space weather analysis office at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. “We’re looking for the trigger, which would typically be a flare or a coronal mass ejection.” 

The Goddard team will track any solar eruptions that occur, measuring how big they are, how fast they’re moving, and how likely they are to generate energetic particles that will cross Orion’s path. To this end, they’ll use real-time data from Sun-watching spacecraft strategically placed across the solar system, such as NASA’s recently launched Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe, NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory, the ESA (European Space Agency)/NASA Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, NOAA’s Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites-19 satellite, and many others. 

Other NASA spacecraft also will help monitor the Sun. Due to Mars’ current position, NASA’s Perseverance Mars rover can look at the far side of the Sun, where Earth has no view. The rover’s Mastcam-Z cameras can give NASA’s space weather teams a view of the largest sunspots up to two weeks earlier so the team can monitor and prepare for possible solar flares.  

Monitoring crew exposure 

Energetic solar particles don’t stream straight out from the Sun. They spiral along the Sun’s magnetic field lines, tracing loops tens of thousands of miles across and scattering due to particle collisions along the way. The chaotic swarm is so large that, from inside it, particles seem to be coming from every direction.  

“It’s more like you’re sitting in a bathtub and it’s gradually filling with water,” said Stuart George, a space radiation analyst at NASA Johnson. 

That gradual rise in radiation gives analysts time to evaluate the situation. Inside Orion, six radiation sensors, part of the Hybrid Electronic Radiation Assessor system designed and built by NASA, measure dose rates in different parts of the cabin. Artemis II astronauts also wear personal radiation trackers called crew active dosimeters. If radiation levels increase, Orion’s onboard systems display warnings accompanied by an audible alarm. 

NASA has dosage level thresholds they’ll look for inside Orion. The first threshold signals a caution, prompting closer monitoring and coordination with medical and flight operations teams. A higher threshold triggers a recommendation for the crew to take shelter. 

Radiation shielding in space is all about mass. Charged particles are slowed and absorbed as they pass through matter. Astronauts are trained to reconfigure their cabin during a solar particle event, removing stowed equipment from storage bays and securing it along areas of the cabin to add mass between themselves and incoming particles. Since Artemis II is the first crewed Artemis mission, testing this procedure in the Orion spacecraft is a major objective of the mission. 

“Once crews add mass to the places that tend to be hotter in terms of radiation exposure, they can then continue to go about their duties,” George said. 

The complexity of solar particle events is one reason NASA places spacecraft across the solar system. During a solar storm in January, NASA analysts tracked a coronal mass ejection on its way to Earth. When it arrived, satellites detected two distinct spikes in energetic particles where there would normally be one. Measurements from NASA’s BioSentinel CubeSat, deployed during the Artemis I mission, revealed what happened. The spacecraft, about 55 million miles away from Earth, detected a distinct eruption that later merged with the coronal mass ejection headed to Earth. Ultimately, two separate eruptions occurred.

The crew also must account for exposure to Earth’s radiation belts and galactic cosmic rays. The Van Allen Radiation Belts are two rings of high energy particles that surround our planet. Any mission headed to the Moon or farther must pass through them. Galactic cosmic rays are very high-energy particles from sources beyond our solar system. Together, the radiation exposure from these sources is expected to be comparable to a 1-month stay on the International Space Station, or about 5% of an astronaut’s career limit. Any exposure from solar radiation events would add to this baseline. 

The Moon to Mars Space Weather Analysis Office, based at NASA Goddard, continuously assesses solar activity and any eruptions that occur. The team shares its analysis with the Space Radiation Analysis Group, based at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston. Together, their forecasts and those from NOAA’s Space Weather Prediction Center, plus real-time measurements from inside the Orion spacecraft will inform recommendations for the flight control team.  

By Miles Hatfield
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.

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From the voyages of spacecraft to the Moon and beyond, to the launches of satellites that help us navigate, communicate, and understand our planet and the universe, the use of liquid-fueled rockets has been key to humanity’s use and exploration of space. Today marks 100 years since the first successful test of this technology.

On March 16, 1926, physicist and inventor Dr. Robert H. Goddard achieved a small but significant success when he launched a liquid-fueled rocket for the first time. His rocket, fueled by liquid oxygen and gasoline, was tested at his Aunt Effie’s farm in Auburn, Massachusetts.

While unimpressive by most measures—the rocket flew for just 2.5 seconds, reaching 41 feet (12.5 meters) in altitude and landing in a cabbage patch 184 feet (56 meters) away—it was a breakthrough that heralded the exploration of space.

Over his lifetime, Goddard improved on his design and went on to create other technologies for space travel, including systems to steer rockets, pumps for rocket fuels, and engines that could pivot for better control. His pioneering work laid an important foundation for our achievements in space today.

Photo Credit: Esther Goddard, from the Clark University archive.